Sanskrit Subhashitam

Sangam literature, which dates back to the Sangam period in ancient South India (c. 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), does indeed contain references to the social classification of Varna. The poems provide insights into the societal structure of that time, including the division of society into different social groups or Varnas. Therefore, option b is correct. Sangam poems often contain references to material culture, including descriptions of trade, agriculture, urban life, and everyday objects. Sangam's poems frequently depict warrior ethics, with many poems glorifying valour, bravery, and military prowess. Sangam literature includes references to various supernatural or magical forces, but these are typically presented as part of the cultural and religious beliefs of the time rather than being explicitly labelled as irrational.

* Statement 1 is incorrect: Devichandraguptam is attributed to Vishakhadatta, a Sanskrit playwright. Bilhana was a poet who lived much later.  * Statement 2 is correct: Hammira-Mahakavya was written by Nayachandra Suri, a Jain scholar and poet. * Statement 3 is incorrect: Milinda-Panha is a dialogue between Buddhist philosopher Nagasena and Indo-Greek King Milinda, focusing on Buddhist concepts like non-self (anatta) and nirvana. Nagasena belonged to the Hinayana tradition, while Nagarjuna, often confused with him, was a Mahayana scholar. For clarity in UPSC, refer to the Milinda-Panha philosopher as Nagasena. * Statement 4 is correct: Nitivakyamrita was written by Somadeva Suri. Thus, statements 2 and 4 are correct.

Malavikagnimitra: A play by Kalidasa, narrates the love story of King Agnimitra, the son of Pushyamitra Shunga, the founder of the Sunga dynasty. Swapnavasavadatta: This Sanskrit play by Bhasa does not revolve around the Sunga dynasty. Meghadoota: This poem by Kalidasa focuses on the pining of a separated Yaksha and doesn't involve historical figures. Ratnavali: This play by Sri Harsha also doesn't have a connection to the Sunga dynasty or its rulers.

Out of the ancient Indian figures mentioned, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous playwrights. Bhavabhuti: A celebrated playwright and poet from the 8th century CE, known for his Sanskrit plays like "Mahaviracharita," "Malatimadhava," and "Uttararamacharita." Hastimalla: A Jain poet and writer from the 13th century CE, who wrote in Kannada and is known for his work "Purvapurana." Kshemeshvara: A Sanskrit poet from Kashmir, believed to have lived between the 10th and 11th centuries CE. One of his notable works is "Dasavatar Charita."

Statement 1 is incorrect. Panini (c. 5th-4th century BCE) was a grammarian who wrote the Ashtadhyayi, a foundational text of Sanskrit grammar. Pushyamitra Shunga (r. 185-145 BCE) was the founder of the Shunga dynasty, which ruled after the Mauryan Empire. Their timelines don't align. Statement 2 is incorrect. Amarasimha (c. 4th-5th century CE) was a scholar and lexicographer who compiled the Amarakosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus. He was one of the nine gems in the court of Vikramaditya, Gupta emperor. Harshavardhana (r. 606-647 CE) was a ruler of the Vardhana dynasty. Thus, there was no overlap between both of them. Statement 3 is correct. Kalidasa (c. 4th-5th century CE) is considered one of the greatest Sanskrit poets and dramatists. His works include Abhijnakuntalam (Shakuntala) and Meghadtam (The Cloud Messenger). The Gupta Empire, under Chandra Gupta II (r. 375-415 CE), is known as a golden age of Indian literature, and Kalidasa is believed to have flourished during this period.